b'Section 3: Cancer biomarkers, vaccines, and therapeuticsIntroductionFew cancers arise from single mutations. In most cancers, multiple genetic events may be involved including mutations, chromosomal aberrations, molecular deficiencies, and epigenetic modifications. The heterogeneity of potential mechanisms, types and subtypes of malignancies, and individual responses is vast. Despite such diversity, current treatment strategies for some cancers rely on a single approach for all patients who display similar pathological manifestations. Ongoing advancements in genetic technologies are revealing genetic and epigenetic biomarkers associated with specific subtypes, phenotypes, and genotypes. Identifying genetic biomarker signatures that canresection of CRC tumors. Tracking revealed expression levels differentiate diagnosis, risk levels, and treatment strategiesfor multiple miRNAs that correlated with progression of CRC. for individual patients is a significant focus of precisionThe researchers developed a selectively designed panel of medicine research. Here, we discuss the recent discoveriesextracellular vesiclederived miRNAs that might provide reliable and advancements made in the field of cancer biomarker, andand specific biomarkers for early prediction of metastatic CRC vaccine and therapeutics research that have been powered byfrom noninvasive liquid biopsies [2]. Studies using TaqMan several genetic analysis technologies.Assays have also revealed upregulated miRNAs associated with Discovering biomarkers for disease development CRC in solid tissue specimens [3]. Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) has drawn attention as a potentialMetastasis is also the primary indicator of fatal breast cancer. source of biomarkers from liquid biopsies. However, in mostDwedar et al. used TaqMan microRNA assays and qPCR to circumstances the amount of ctDNA is too low to detect usingreveal higher levels of cell-free circulating miR-10b in serum from conventional genetic approaches. Hagi et al. developed a methodbreast cancer patients compared to healthy individuals. The using the Ion Torrent NGS system that incorporates molecularmiR-10b variant was also upregulated as tumors progressed to barcodes into DNA fragments for sequencing. Their approachmetastasis. The authors speculate that circulating miR-10b could eliminates background errors to detect rare mutations in plasmabe used as a potential biomarker for noninvasive diagnosis and from patients with esophageal cancer at about a 40-fold lowerprognosis of breast cancer [4].variant allele frequency compared to the traditional molecularIn prostate cancer, the inability to differentiate slow-growing barcode approach [1]. tumors from aggressive tumors has led to a rise in biopsies of Genetic technologies can be highly valuable for differentiatinginsignificant tumors and overtreatment. Ruiz-Plazas et al. turned genetic variants implicated at different stages of cancerto an uncommon biopsy fluid, semen, as a possible source of progression. For example, microRNAs (miRNAs) have beengenetic insights to stratify patient risk levels and potentially guide determined to be involved in many mechanisms of malignancy.appropriate treatment. Analysis of oncomiRNA expression using Oncogenic miRNAs (oncomiRNAs) have been identifiedRT-qPCR with SYBR Green dye revealed a panel of oncomiRNAs that control cell growth and proliferation, cell death, cancerthat differentiated aggressive from nonaggressive forms of invasion, metastasis, and immune signaling. With so manyprostate cancer. An assay that reveals aggressive prostate areas of influence, miRNAs may be a valuable source forcancer subtypes based only on information obtained from biomarker discovery.semen may be a valuable approach to guiding more effective Combatting metastasis is a prevailing challenge for cancertreatment options [5].researchers, oncologists, and patients. It is the primaryAlmost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by human indicator of fatal disease in many cancers. Aberrant expressionpapilloma virus (HPV). Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have of miRNA is associated with metastasis in a wide range ofbeen associated with cervical cancer, but how HPV infection cancers. De Miguel-Perez et al. used Applied Biosystemsleads to aberrant lncRNA expression and pathogenesis remains TaqMan microRNA assays and RT-qPCR to track miRNAa mystery. In one recent study, sequencing and RT-qPCR expression from extracellular vesicles in serum following surgicalrevealed 194 lncRNA isoforms that were differentially regulated Contents 8'